ABSTRACT
Chromium is a widely utilized industrial metal that has emerged as a major hazardous pollutant in soil and water, largely due to its extensive release from mining, electroplating, tanning, steel production, textile industry, and other anthropogenic activities. In soil, Cr primarily exists in two forms: trivalent Cr(III) and hexavalent Cr(VI). The speciation of Cr depends on soil pH, redox potential, organic matter content, and microbial activity; these factors, in turn, govern its mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity. Being highly soluble, mobile, and bioavailable, Cr(VI) exposure in plants leads to severe phytotoxicity, reduced crop yields, and oxidative stress. Furthermore, through its entry into the food chain, as well as via exposure to contaminated air and water, Cr poses a carcinogenic risk to humans. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding various sources of Cr (both natural and anthropogenic), chromium speciation and its chemistry in soil, and its environmental impacts.
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